Biological ontologies are used to organize, curate, and interpret the vast quantities of data arising from biological experiments. While this works well when using a single ontology, integrating multiple ontologies can be problematic, as they are developed independently, which can lead to incompatibilities. The Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies Foundry was created to address this by facilitating the development, harmonization, application, and sharing of ontologies, guided by a set of overarching principles. One challenge in reaching these goals was that the (...) OBO principles were not originally encoded in a precise fashion, and interpretation was subjective. Here we show how we have addressed this by formally encoding the OBO principles as operational rules and implementing a suite of automated validation checks and a dashboard for objectively evaluating each ontology’s compliance with each principle. This entailed a substantial effort to curate metadata across all ontologies and to coordinate with individual stakeholders. We have applied these checks across the full OBO suite of ontologies, revealing areas where individual ontologies require changes to conform to our principles. Our work demonstrates how a sizable federated community can be organized and evaluated on objective criteria that help improve overall quality and interoperability, which is vital for the sustenance of the OBO project and towards the overall goals of making data FAIR. Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest. (shrink)

“What is the structure of thought?” is as central a question as any in cognitive science. A classic answer to this question has appealed to a Language of Thought (LoT). We point to emerging research from disparate branches of the field that supports the LoT hypothesis, but also uncovers diversity in LoTs across cognitive systems, stages of development, and species. Our letter formulates open research questions for cognitive science concerning the varieties of rules and representations that underwrite various LoT-based systems (...) and how these variations can help researchers taxonomize cognitive systems. (shrink)

Peer commentary on: Blumenthal-Barby, J. S. (2016). Biases and heuristics in decision making and their impact on autonomy. The American Journal of Bioethics, 16(5), 5-15.

În acest articol încerc să argumentez opinia că, așa cum este definită eugenia, este foarte dificil de făcut o diferențiere clară între știință (medicină, ingineria genetică) și eugenie. Și de stabilit o linie peste care ingineria genetică nu ar trebui să treacă, conform unor norme morale, juridice și religioase. Atâta timp cât acceptăm ajutorul geneticii în găsirea unor modalități de combatere a cancerului, diabetului sau HIV, acceptăm în mod implicit și eugenia pozitivă, conform definiției actuale. Și atâta timp cât acceptăm (...) screening-ul genetic, și intervenții asupra fătului nenăscut, sau avortul, acceptăm în mod implicit și eugenia negativă. În plus, la nivel de guverne, deși oficial eugenia este repudiată, ea a fost legalizată în foarte multe țări până de curând, și încă mai este acceptată și legalizată, chiar dacă în forme mai subtile, și în prezent. În Introducere definesc termenul și modurile de clasificare. Urmează Istoria eugeniei pornind din perioada antică, introducerea eugeniei de Francis Galton, practica eugeniei ca politică de stat în diverse țări, și eugenia actuală (eugenia liberală). Analizez apoi diverse probleme ridicate de Etica eugeniei liberale, și am dezvoltat o secțiune aparte pentru Viitorul eugeniei, cu accent pe proiectul genomului uman. În final, în secțiunea Concluzii expun opiniile personale cu privire la practica actuală a eugeniei. Am folosit ca surse principale de investigație articolele lui Kenneth M. Ludmerer, ”American Geneticists and the Eugenics Movement: 1905-1935”, Kathy J. Cooke, ”Duty or Dream? Edwin G. Conklin's Critique of Eugenics and Support for American Individualism”, Jonathan Anomaly, ”Defending Eugenics”, John R. Harding Jr. ”Beyond Abortion: Human Genetics and the New Eugenics”, Michael Boulter, ”Bloomsbury Scientists”, Chapter Title: The rise of eugenics, 1901–14, Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, ”Moral Philosophy as Applied Science” și Goering, Sara, "Eugenics". (shrink)

Il s’agit ici de présenter une version raffinée du libéralisme de la peur de Judith Shklar : le libéralisme de la prudence. Après en avoir brièvement présenté les grandes lignes et les principales faiblesses, j’esquisse les contours du libéralisme de la prudence et montre comment il réalise, mieux que libéralisme de la peur, le programme minimaliste poursuivi par Shklar. Je montre ensuite comment le libéralisme de la prudence nous permet de sortir du dilemme libéral posé par la tradition postrawlsienne : (...) justifier le libéralisme sur des bases morales, au risque de le priver de neutralité, ou le justifier sur des bases réalistes hobbesiennes, au risque d’en faire l’otage des rapports de force changeants. Enfin, j’examine comme le principal défaut apparent du libéralisme de la prudence – à savoir son ascétisme programmatique – est en fait son principal mérite. (shrink)

La principale source biographique sur Platon, selon le témoignage du néoplatonicien Simplicius, a été écrite par le disciple Xénocrate, mais malheureusement elle ne nous est pas parvenue. La première biographie de Platon à ce jour, De Platone et dogmate eius, est d'un auteur latin du IIe siècle, Apulée. Toutes les autres biographies de Platon ont été écrites plus de cinq cents ans après sa mort. L'historien grec Diogène (IIe et IIIe siècles) est l'auteur d'une série de biographies de philosophes grecs (...) (Les vies des philosophes) dans lesquelles il se réfère à la vie de Platon. Il a également écrit une louange funèbre pour Platon. D'autres premiers biographes de Platon sont Olympiodore le Jeune au VIe siècle et une source anonyme. Une source importante sur la vie de Platon est ses dialogues philosophiques, ses treize lettres (peut-être fausses, à l'exception peut-être des Lettres VII et VIII), les écrits d'Aristote, un extrait de l'épicurien Philodème dede Gadara, l'Histoire des philosophes (Syntaxis ton philosophon), Ier siècle av. J.-C., les écrits anonymes de Prolégomène sur la philosophie platonicienne traditionnellement attribués à Olympiodore, Suda, Xe siècle, et La vie de Dio de Plutarque, Ier-IIe siècle. -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18219.92969 . (shrink)

L'évolution des tests gravitationnels dans une perspective épistémologique encadré dans le concept de reconstruction rationnelle d'Imre Lakatos, fondée sur sa méthodologie de programmes de recherche. Contrairement à d'autres travaux sur le même sujet, la période évaluée est très longue, allant de la philosophie naturelle de Newton aux théories de la gravité quantique d'aujourd'hui. Afin d'expliquer de manière plus rationnelle l'évolution complexe du concept de gravité du siècle dernier, je propose une extension naturelle de la méthodologie des programmes de recherche que (...) j'utilisais ensuite au cours de la communication. Je pense que cette approche offre une nouvelle perspective sur la manière dont le concept de gravité et les méthodes de test de chaque théorie de la gravité ont évalué dans le temps, par le biais d'observations et d'expériences. Je soutiens, sur la base de la méthodologie des programmes de recherche et des études des scientifiques et des philosophes, que les théories actuelles de la gravité quantique sont dégénératives, en raison du manque de preuves expérimentales sur une longue période et d'auto-immunisation contre la possibilité de la réfutabilité. De plus, un courant méthodologique est en cours de développement, attribuant un rôle secondaire, sans importance, aux vérifications par le biais d'observations et / ou d'expériences. Pour cette raison, il ne sera pas possible d'avoir une théorie complète de la gravité quantique sous sa forme actuelle qui inclura à la limite la relativité générale, car les théories physiques ont toujours été ajustées, au cours de leur évolution, sur la base d'essais d'observation ou expérimentaux, et vérifiées par les prédictions effectuées. En outre, contrairement à une opinion répandue et aux programmes en cours concernant l'unification de toutes les forces fondamentales de la physique dans une théorie finale unique, basée sur la théorie des cordes, je soutiens que cette unification est généralement improbable et, de toute façon, impossible pour que l'unification soit développée sur la base des théories actuelles de la gravité quantique, y compris la théorie des cordes. En outre, je partage l’avis de certains scientifiques et philosophes selon lequel on consacre actuellement trop de ressources à l’idée de développer des théories de la gravité quantique, et en particulier de la théorie des cordes, qui devrait inclure la relativité générale et unifier la gravité avec d’autres forces, en particulier conditions dans lesquelles la science n’impose pas de tels programmes de recherche. (shrink)

În această lucrare analizez posibilitatea călătoriei în timp pe baza mai multor lucrări de specialitate, printre care cele ale lui Nicholas J.J. Smith ("Time Travel", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”), William Grey (”Troubles with Time Travel”), Ulrich Meyer (”Explaining causal loops”), Simon Keller și Michael Nelson (”Presentists should believe in time-travel”), Frank Arntzenius și Tim Maudlin ("Time Travel and Modern Physics") și David Lewis (“The Paradoxes of Time Travel”). Lucrarea începe cu o Introducere în care fac o scurtă prezentare a (...) călătoriei în timp, și continuă cu o Istoria conceptului de călătorie în timp, prezentarea principalelor Aspecte fizice ale călătoriei în timp, inclusiv călătoria în timp în trecut în relativitatea generală și în fizica cuantică și călătoria în timp în viitor, apoi o prezentare a Paradoxul bunicului care este abordat în aproape toate lucrările de specialitate, urmat de o secțiune dedicată Filosofiei călătoriei în timp, și o secțiune în care analizez Buclele cauzale pentru călătoria în timp. Finalizez lucrarea cu Concluzii, în care expun opiniile personale privind călătoria în timp, și Bibliografia pe care se bazează lucrarea. (shrink)

La République a été écrite environ entre 380 et 370 av. J.C. Le titre République est dérivé du latin, étant attribué à Cicéron, qui a appelé le livre De re publica (A propos des affaires publiques), ou même De republica, créant ainsi une confusion quant à sa véritable signification. La République est considérée comme faisant partie intégrante du genre littéraire utopique. Le deuxième titre, Peri dikaiou (περὶ δικαίου, Sur la justice), a peut-être été inclus plus tard. Le thème central du (...) livre est la justice, argumentée à l'aide de plusieurs théories platoniciennes, dont le mythe allégorique de la caverne, la doctrine des Idées, la dialectique, la théorie de l'âme et la conception d'une cité idéale. La République est considérée par de nombreux universitaires comme le plus grand texte philosophique jamais écrit, étant le livre le plus étudié dans les meilleures universités. -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26103.91040 . (shrink)

About the possibility of time traveling based on several specialized works, including those of Nicholas J. J. Smith ("Time Travel"), William Grey (”Troubles with Time Travel”), Ulrich Meyer (”Explaining causal loops”), Simon Keller and Michael Nelson (”Presentists should believe in time-travel”), Frank Arntzenius and Tim Maudlin ("Time Travel and Modern Physics"), and David Lewis (“The Paradoxes of Time Travel”). The article begins with an Introduction in which I make a short presentation of the time travel, and continues with a History (...) of the concept of time travel, main physical aspects of time travel, including backward time travel in the past in general relativity and quantum physics, and time travel in the future, then a presentation of the Grandfather paradox that is approached in almost all specialized works, followed by a section dedicated to the Philosophy of time travel, and a section in which I analyze Causal loops for time travel. I finish my work with Conclusions, in which I sustain my personal opinions on the time travel, and the Bibliography on which the work is based. -/- ISSN 978-606-033-195-7, DOI: 10.58679/TW82554. (shrink)

Dans un article précédent, The Philosophy of blockchain technology - Ontologies, j'ai parlé de l'application de la théorie narrative de Paul Ricœur dans le développement d'une ontologie de la technologie blockchain. Dans cette section, j'ai l'intention de mettre en évidence l'idée d'une analogie entre la technologie blockchain et les théories causales de la référence. Dans la mesure où la poursuite de l'élaboration de cette idée se révélera viable, je vais essayer de développer une théorie basée sur cette analogie. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24843.21282 (...) . (shrink)

Une analyse des concepts d'heuristique et de tolérance méthodologique développée par Lakatos, basée sur l'article "Falsification et méthodologie des programmes de recherche scientifique", publié pour la première fois en 1970, puis dans l'ouvrage La méthodologie des programmes de recherche scientifique, volume I. J'ai analysé dans ce texte l'exemplifiant de l'auteur pour le programme de recherche de l'émission de lumière (en physique quantique au début). Un exemple détaillé des concepts est présenté par Lakatos dans la section "Effet de Newton sur les (...) normes scientifiques" du même livre. J'ai également fait souvent référence au livre Preuves et Réfutations, publié par Lakatos en 1976, dans lequel il expose sa vision heuristique par une application directe à l'évolution des mathématiques. J'ai également fait référence à des articles d'autres auteurs pour l'analyse des deux concepts dans la vision de Lakatos. SOMMAIRE: Abstract 1 Vue d'ensemble 1.1 Le falsificationnisme dogmatique (ou naturaliste) 1.2 La falsification méthodologique 1.3 La falsification méthodologique sophistiquée 2. La tolérance méthodologique 3 L'heuristique 3.1 Heuristique négative : le « noyau dur » du programme 3.2 L'heuristique positive : la « ceinture de protection » du programme 3.3 Bohr : un exemple de programme de recherche 3.4 Preuves et Réfutations 4 Conclusions Bibliographie DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.30348.46729 . (shrink)

Une analogie entre les aspects épistémologiques et méthodologiques de l'activité des services de renseignement et certaines disciplines scientifiques, en préconisant une approche plus scientifique du processus de collecte et d'analyse de l'information au sein du cycle du renseignement. J'affirme que les aspects théoriques, ontologiques et épistémologiques de l'activité de nombreux services de renseignement sont sous-estimés, ce qui conduit à une compréhension incomplète des phénomènes actuels et à une confusion dans la collaboration interinstitutionnelle. Après une brève Introduction, qui inclut un historique (...) de l'évolution du concept de service de renseignement après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Renseignement définit les objectifs et l'organisation des services de renseignement, le modèle de base de ces organisations (le cycle du renseignement) et les aspects pertinents de la collection de l'information et l'analyse du renseignement. Dans la section Ontologie, je souligne les aspects ontologiques et les entités qui menacent et qui sont menacés. La section Épistémologie comprend des aspects spécifiques à l'activité de renseignement, avec l'analyse du modèle traditionnel (Singer) utilisé traditionnellement, et j'expose une approche épistémologique possible à travers le concept de connaissance tacite développé par le scientifique Michael Polanyi. La section Méthodologie contient diverses théories méthodologiques mettant l’accent sur les techniques analytiques structurelles ainsi que certaines analogies avec la science, l’archéologie, les affaires et la médecine. L'article se termine par les Conclusions sur la possibilité d'une approche plus scientifique des méthodes de collecte d'information et d'analyse des services de renseignement. SOMMAIRE: Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1. Histoire du renseignement 2. Renseignement 2.1. Organisations 2.2. Cycle du renseignement 2.3. La collecte du renseignement 2.4. Analyse du renseignement 2.5. Contre-espionnage 2.6. Communautés épistémiques 3. Ontologie 4. Épistémologie 4.1. La connaissance tacite (Polanyi) 5. Méthodologies 6. Analogies avec d'autres disciplines 6.1. Science 6.2. Archéologie 6.3. Affaires 6.4. Médecine 7. Conclusions Bibliographie DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35970.22729 . (shrink)

L'une des controverses les disputées sur la priorité des découvertes scientifiques est celle de la loi de la gravitation universelle, entre Isaac Newton et Robert Hooke. Hooke a accusé Newton de plagiat, de reprendre ses idées exprimées dans des travaux antérieurs. J'essaie de montrer, sur la base d'une analyse précédente, que tous les deux scientifiques avaient tort: Robert Hooke parce que sa théorie n'était fondamentalement que des idées qui ne se seraient jamais matérialisées sans l'appui mathématique d'Isaac Newton; et ce (...) dernier avait tort de ne pas reconnaître les idées de Hooke dans l'élaboration de la théorie de la gravité. En outre, après la mort de Hooke et son accession à la présidence de la Royal Society, Newton a retiré de l'institution toute trace de l'ancien président Robert Hooke. Pour cela, je détaille les accusations et les arguments de chacune des parties, et comment ce différend a été perçu par les contemporains des deux scientifiques. Je termine le papier avec les conclusions tirées du contenu. -/- TABLE: -/- Abstract Introduction La contribution de Robert Hooke à la loi de la gravitation universelle La contribution d'Isaac Newton à la loi de la gravitation universelle La revendication de priorité de Robert Hooke sur la loi de la gravitation universelle La défense de Newton La controverse dans l'opinion des scientifiques contemporains Ce que disent les supporters d'Isaac Newton Ce que disent les supporters de Robert Hooke Conclusions Bibliographie Notes -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20313.06245. (shrink)

À propos de la possibilité de voyager dans le temps sur la base de plusieurs ouvrages spécialisés, notamment ceux de Nicholas J. J. Smith (« Time Travel »), William Grey (« Troubles with Time Travel »), Ulrich Meyer (« Explaining causal loops »), Simon Keller and Michael Nelson (« Presentists should believe in time-travel »), Frank Arntzenius and Tim Maudlin (« Time Travel and Modern Physics »), et David Lewis (« The Paradoxes of Time Travel »). L'article commence par une (...) Introduction dans laquelle je fais une brève présentation du voyage dans le temps et poursuit par une Histoire du concept de voyage dans le temps, les principaux aspects physiques du voyage dans le temps, y compris les voyages dans le temps dans le passé dans la relativité générale et la physique quantique , et les voyages dans le temps dans le futur, puis une présentation du Paradoxe du grand-père abordé dans presque toutes les œuvres spécialisées, suivie d’une section consacrée à la Philosophie du voyage dans le temps et d’une section dans laquelle j’analyse les Boucles causales pour le voyage dans le temps. Je termine mon travail avec Conclusions, dans laquelle je maintiens mes opinions personnelles sur le voyage dans le temps et la Bibliographie sur laquelle repose le travail. -/- TABLE: -/- Abstract Introducere Istoria conceptului de călătorie în timp Paradoxul bunicului Filosofía călătoriei în timp Buclele cauzale Concluzii Note Bibliografie -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27116.51841. (shrink)

Malgré les critiques de la théorie de Karl Popper sur la falsifiabilité pour la démarcation entre la science et la non-science, principalement la pseudo-science, ce critère est toujours très utile et parfaitement valide après avoir été perfectionné par Popper et ses disciples. De plus, même dans sa version originale, qualifiée de « dogmatique » par Lakatos, Popper n’a pas affirmé que cette méthode constituait un critère absolu de démarcation : un seul contre-exemple ne suffit pas à falsifier une théorie ; (...) une théorie peut légitimement être sauvée de la falsification en introduisant une hypothèse auxiliaire. Comparé à la théorie des révolutions de Kuhn, de qui lui-même s'est dissocié pour la transformer en une théorie des « micro-révolutions », j'estime que la méthode de démarcation de Popper, ainsi que le développement ultérieur proposé par lui, incluant la corroboration et la vraisemblance, même imparfait, n’est pas seulement valable aujourd’hui, mais c’est la meilleure méthodologie de démarcation. -/- SOMMAIRE: -/- Abstract Introduction 1. Le problème de la démarcation 2. Pseudoscience 3. Falsifiabilité 4 Falsification et réfutation 5 Extension de la falsifiabilité 6. Critiques de la falsifiabilité 7 Support de la falsifiabilité 8 Tendance actuelle Conclusions Bibliographie Notes -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19124.60805 . (shrink)

Les principaux aspects psychologiques et philosophiques détachés du film Solaris réalisé par Andrei Tarkovski, ainsi que les techniques cinématographiques utilisées par le réalisateur pour transmettre ses messages aux spectateurs. Dans « Introduction », je présente brièvement les éléments pertinents de la biographie de Tarkovski et un aperçu du roman Solaris de Stanislav Lem et du film Solaris réalisé par Andrei Tarkovsky. Dans « Technique cinématographique », je parle du rythme spécifique des scènes, du mouvement radical déclenché par Tarkovski dans le (...) cinéma moderne, du rôle des éléments symboliques et iconiques et des affinités avec le fantastique domaine de la littérature russe. Dans « Aspects psychologiques », j'analyse la question de la communication dans une société humaine de l'avenir considéré par Tarkovski comme rigide, de l'obsession de la maison et de l'évolution personnelle de Kris, Hari et de leurs relations. Dans « Aspects philosophiques », le film est analysé à travers la philosophie de l’esprit (dualisme cartésien, réductionnisme et fonctionnalisme), le problème de l’identité personnelle, la théorie des espaces hétérotopiques développée par Michel Foucault et les interprétations sémantiques pouvant être déduites du film. J'analyse également la question de l'identité personnelle à travers la philosophie de Locke. Les « Conclusions » montrent les idées générales de cet essai, à savoir que les tentatives de l'homme pour classer et maintenir des formes d'interaction avec des entités inconnues seront toujours condamnées à l'échec et refléteront une erreur majeure du monde panoptique dans lequel nous vivons. Dans ce cadre d'analyse de la philosophie de l'esprit, le fonctionnalisme semble être le plus intuitif. Solaris est toutefois un film qui commence par une recherche de réponses et vient apporter à ces réponses toute une gamme de questions différentes. -/- SOMMAIRE: -/- Abstract Introduction 1 Technique cinématographique 2. Aspects psychologiques 3. Aspects philosophiques Conclusions Bibliographie Notes -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20367.53929 . (shrink)

De la nécessité et de l'utilité de développer une philosophie spécifique pour la technologie de la blockchain, mettant l'accent sur les aspects ontologiques. Après une Introduction qui met en évidence les principales orientations philosophiques de cette technologie émergente, dans La technologie blockchain j’explique le fonctionnement de la blockchain, en analysant les directions de développement ontologique de cette technologie dans Conception et modélisation. La section suivante est consacrée à la principale application de la technologie de la blockchain, Bitcoin, avec les implications (...) sociales de cette crypto-monnaie. Il suit une section de Philosophie dans laquelle j'identifie la technologie de la blockchain au concept d'hétérotopie développé par Michel Foucault et je l'interprète à la lumière de la technologie de notation développée par Nelson Goodman en tant que système de notation. Dans la section Ontologie, je présente deux voies de développement que j'estime importantes: une Ontologie narrative, basée sur l'idée d'ordre et de structure de l'histoire transmise à travers l'histoire narrative de Paul Ricoeur, et le système de l'Ontologie d'entreprise basé sur des concepts et des modèles d'entreprise, spécifiques au Web sémantique, que je considère comme le plus développé et qui deviendra probablement le système ontologique formel, du moins en ce qui concerne les aspects économiques et juridiques de la technologie de la blockchain. Dans Conclusions, je parle des orientations futures du développement de la philosophie de la technologie blockchain en général en tant que théorie explicative et robuste d’un point de vue phénoménologique cohérent, qui permet la testabilité et les ontologies en particulier, en plaidant pour la nécessité de l’adoption globale d’un système ontologique afin de développer des solutions transversales et de rentabiliser cette technologie. -/- SOMMAIRE: -/- Abstract Introduction La technologie blockchain - Conception - Modèles Bitcoin Philosophie Ontologies - Ontologies narratives - Ontologies d'entreprise Conclusions Bibliographie Notes -/- DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22996.14724 . (shrink)

The famous Cartesian Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715) espoused the occasionalist doctrine that ‘there is only one true cause because there is only one true God; that the nature or power of each thing is nothing but the will of God; that all natural causes are not true causes but only occasional causes’ (LO, 448, original italics). One of Malebranche’s well-known arguments for occasionalism, known as, the ‘no necessary connection’ argument (or, NNC ) stems from the principle that ‘a true cause… is (...) one such that the mind perceives a necessary connection between it and its effect’ (LO, 450). The outline of this paper is as follows. I explicitly layout NNC and articulate some of its prima facie strengths (§1). I then critically discuss, what I take to be, the two main arguments against NNC of the Lee-Pyle interpretation (§2). The main conclusion from (§2) is that Malebranche did not abandon NNC in his later works given textual evidence from the Dialogues, contrary to the Lee-Pyle interpretation. In (§3) I discuss in what ways Suárez, Leibniz, Régis and Spinoza all accepted the main premise of NNC. Then, I rebut Steven Nadler’s influential and unchallenged criticism that Malebranche conflated causal and logical necessity, and provide a more accurate interpretation of Malebranche that only commits him to a partial reduction of causal to logical necessity (§4). (shrink)

Festschrift in Honor of Barry Smith on the occasion of his 65th Birthday. Published as issue 4:4 of the journal Cosmos + Taxis: Studies in Emergent Order and Organization. Includes contributions by Wolfgang Grassl, Nicola Guarino, John T. Kearns, Rudolf Lüthe, Luc Schneider, Peter Simons, Wojciech Żełaniec, and Jan Woleński.

Philosophy, that most misunderstood of intellectual pursuits, is often mocked; and no part of philosophy is as often mocked as metaphysics. The image of the ‘speculative metaphysician’ dreaming up abstract pictures of the world has been held up for ridicule by poets, playwrights, novelists, journalists as well as by other philosophers. The Logical Positivists in the first half of the 20th Century rejected all metaphysical speculations as ‘meaningless’ since they could not be verified by scientific experiment; in the later part (...) of the century, Wittgenstein criticised systematic metaphysics as being a kind of intellectual disease resulting from our reading false pictures of the world into the grammar of our language. The common suspicion underlying many of these attacks is that ultimately, all metaphysics is a kind of nonsense, and that metaphysicians don’t really know what they are talking about. This suspicion is not new. Nicolas-Sébastien Chamfort commented in 1796, ‘I am tempted to say of metaphysicians what Scaliger used to say of the Basques: they are said to understand one another, but I don’t believe a word of it.’ Some contemporary philosophers may agree. (shrink)

A critical discussion of J.B. Shank, 'Before Voltaire: the French Origins of "Newtonian" Mechanics,' University of Chicago Press, 2018.

Η μοντέρνα φιλοσοφία στράφηκε απευθείας στη φύση (Francis Bacon), στράφηκε απευθείας στο νου (René Descartes), στράφηκε απευθείας στην εμπειρία (Thomas Hobbes). Από αυτή τη βασική διαφωνία ως προς τις πηγές της φιλοσοφικής γνώσης προέκυψε η «διαμάχη των αρχαίων με τους σύγχρονους». -/- Η σύγχρονη φιλοσοφία αποστασιοποιήθηκε από το παγιωμένο γνωσιολογικό παρελθόν και ενστερνίστηκε την αρχή ότι η γνώση προοδεύει ιστορικά και κατατείνει στη διεύρυνση της ανθρώπινης κατανόησης μέσω της λογικής μεθόδου ή μέσω της εμπειρίας. Στη διαμάχη μεταξύ των ηπειρωτικών ορθολογιστών (...) φιλοσόφων (Descartes, Nicolas Malebranche, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz και Benedict de Spinoza) και των Βρετανών εμπειριστών (Hobbes, John Locke και David Hume) στο τέλος του Διαφωτισμού του δέκατου όγδοου αιώνα, ο Immanuel Kant επιχείρησε να συμφιλιώσει τις αντιθέσεις και να διατυπώσει μια νέα κριτική φιλοσοφία. Ο Immanuel Kant συγκέντρωσε στην «κριτική» του φιλοσοφία τις δεσμεύσεις για την αναλυτική άσκηση του νου, από τη μια, και την εμπειρική πρόσληψη μέσω των αισθήσεων, από την άλλη. Με τον Καντ, η σύγχρονη φιλοσοφία συνδύασε την «υπερβατική ενότητα της αντίληψης» με την «πολλαπλότητα της εμπειρίας». Η σύγχρονη φιλοσοφία δεν βασιζόταν πλέον σε μια θεωρία αναπαράστασης -αναπαράσταση του νου μέσω της λογικής ή αναπαράσταση του νου μέσω της εμπειρίας- αλλά στη σύνδεση της υπερβατικής υποκειμενικότητας και της εμπειρικής αντικειμενικότητας. Αυτό το «διπλό», όπως το ονόμασε ο Michel Foucault, αντιπροσώπευε έναν εντελώς νέο τρόπο φιλοσοφίας. Ο μοντερνισμός διακρίνεται από τη σύγχρονη φιλοσοφία στο ότι συνδέεται με ορισμένα κινήματα στην τέχνη και τη λογοτεχνία που ξεκίνησαν κάπου γύρω στα τέλη του δέκατου ένατου αιώνα. Ενώ βασιζόταν σε κάποια παρόμοια χαρακτηριστικά της «μοντέρνας φιλοσοφίας», ο μοντερνισμός στην τέχνη, τη λογοτεχνία και τη φιλοσοφία περιλάμβανε καινοτομία, ρήξη με την παράδοση, πρόοδο, συνεχή ανάπτυξη, γνώση που προέρχεται είτε από τη θέση του υποκειμένου είτε από αξιώσεις για αντικειμενικότητα, και ταυτόχρονα κρίση στη γνώση που παράγεται από αυτήν ακριβώς τη διχοτόμηση. Ως εκ τούτου, στον μοντερνισμό, την ίδια στιγμή που ορισμένες θεωρίες βασίζονταν στη γνώση σε μια επικεντρωμένη, υπερβατική, ερμηνευτική υποκειμενικότητα και άλλες βασίζονταν στη γνώση σε βέβαιη, ατομικιστική, αναλυτική, εμπειρική αντικειμενικότητα, η κρίση στη γνώση δημιούργησε μια αίσθηση αβεβαιότητας, παραδοξότητας, ατέλειας, ανεπάρκειας, κενό. Ο μοντερνισμός στην τέχνη και τη λογοτεχνία περιλάμβανε μια μετατόπιση από τις διχοτομίες του ρομαντισμού και του ρεαλισμού στο ρεύμα της συνείδησης, της βιωμένης και εσωτερικής συνείδησης του χρόνου, της υπερβατικής υποκειμενικότητας, της αφηγηματικής ανάμνησης και επίγνωσης, της απεικονιζόμενης ταχύτητας, των μηχανισμών, των αντικειμένων και των αφαιρέσεων. Το λανθάνον περιεχόμενο αφέθηκε να διεισδύσει μέσα από τις επιφάνειες εμφανούς περιεχομένου. Η κατανόηση θα έπρεπε να εμβαθύνει περισσότερο από τις επιφάνειες και τις απλές εμφανίσεις. Θα χρειαζόταν μια φαινομενολογία για την απογραφή του περιεχομένου της συνείδησης (Edmund Husserl) ή μια ψυχανάλυση για να διερευνήσει τα βάθη του τι σκεφτόταν πραγματικά ο νους (Sigmund Freud), ή ένας λογικός θετικισμός θα έπαιρνε την εναλλακτική οδό, αποκλείοντας κάθε γνώση που δεν μπορεί να επαληθευτεί λογικά και εμπειρικά (Bertrand Russell, πρώιμος Ludwig Wittgenstein, A. J. Ayer). Ο μοντερνισμός στη φιλοσοφία περιλάμβανε σε κάθε στάδιο τον καντιανό συνδυασμό του εμπειρικού και του υπερβατικού, του αντικειμενικού και του υποκειμενικού, του υλικού και του διανοητικού—αλλά κάθε φορά στη διπλή αυτή θεωρητική σύλληψη υπερίσχυε αξιακά και γνωσιολογικά ένας πόλος. -/- Η αποσύνθεση του μοντερνισμού στη φιλοσοφία ήταν εσωτερική. Οι ριζοσπαστικοί ισχυρισμοί του λογικού θετικισμού απέκλειαν ό,τι είχε αξία: τη μεταφυσική, την αισθητική, την αξιολογία. Η αυστηρή επιστήμη της υπερβατικής φαινομενολογίας απέκλεισε την ίδια την ύπαρξη αυτού που ερευνούσε. Ο δυϊσμός του δημιουργικού εξελικτισμού άφησε μια ανεπανόρθωτη διχοτόμηση μεταξύ βιωμένης εμπειρίας και αντικειμενικής γνώσης. Ο πραγματισμός του ριζοσπαστικού εμπειρισμού απέτυχε να προσφέρει έναν τρόπο ερμηνείας των νοημάτων της εμπειρίας. Το κέντρο του μοντερνισμού στη φιλοσοφία δεν μπορούσε να κρατήσει γιατί τα ίδια τα θεμέλιά του ήταν υπό αμφισβήτηση. Αλλά οι προσπάθειες να το ανακτήσει κανείς από τον εαυτό του με τη στροφή προς τη γλώσσα - καθημερινή γλώσσα, αναλυτικές φιλοσοφίες της γλώσσας, ερμηνευτική της γλώσσας, σημειολογίες της γλώσσαςδεν μπόρεσαν να λύσουν τα διλήμματα της ανθρώπινης ύπαρξης. Ο μοντερνισμός στη φιλοσοφία αντιμετώπισε το παράλογο, το διφορούμενο και το διαλεκτικό και εξώθησε αυτές τις θεωρίες στα όριά τους. Στα μέσα της δεκαετίας του 1960, η φιλοσοφία άρχισε να εξετάζει τους γνωσιολογικούς της, οι ανακρίσεις του Maurice Merleau-Ponty αναδιατυπώθηκαν στην αρχαιολογία της γνώσης του Foucault. Οι ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες έθεσαν υπό αμφισβήτηση τις αισιοδοξίες της σύγχρονης φιλοσοφίας παρακάμπτοντας τη θεωρία του «ανθρώπου». Οι σχηματισμοί γνώσης αρθρώθηκαν με όρους πολλαπλών χώρων παραγωγής γνώσης και όχι πλέον σύμφωνα με μια κεντρική πηγή ή θέση, ή εγώ, ή εαυτός, ή υποκείμενο, ούτε σύμφωνα με μια πληθώρα αισθητηριακών δεδομένων, αντικειμενικών κριτηρίων, υλικών στοιχείων ή συμπεριφορών . Οι σχηματισμοί γνώσης διέσχιζαν τους κλάδους και λειτούργησαν σε πολλαπλούς χώρους όπου τα ερωτήματα της δομής, του πλαισίου, του περιθωρίου, του ορίου, της άκρης, του ορίου κ.λπ. θα σημάδευαν οποιαδήποτε πρακτική λόγου. Με άλλα λόγια, η γνώση δεν παράγεται πλέον από ένα κέντρο, θεμέλιο, έδαφος, βάση, ταυτότητα, εξουσία ή υπερβατική ικανότητα. Η γνώση ήταν διάσπαρτη, πολλαπλή, κατακερματισμένη και θεωρητικά ποικίλη. Η γνώση δεν βασιζόταν πλέον στη συνέχεια, την ενότητα, την ολότητα, την πληρότητα και τη συνέπεια. Η γνώση άρχισε να γίνεται κατανοητή με όρους ασυνέχειας, διαφοράς, διάδοσης και διαφορετικών. Στις αρχές της δεκαετίας του 1970, ο μεταμοντερνισμός - ένας όρος που χρησιμοποίησε ο Daniel Bell σε σχέση με τη μεταβιομηχανική κοινωνία τη δεκαετία του 1950, τον οποίο έκαναν έκκληση οι αρχιτέκτονες στη δεκαετία του 1960 και που οι ιστορικοί της τέχνης και της λογοτεχνίας επικαλέστηκαν τη δεκαετία του 1970 - δεν είχε ακόμη επικαλεστεί σε σχέση με τη φιλοσοφία. -/- Η γραμματολογία και η θεωρία της «διαφοράς» του Ζακ Ντεριντά το 1967 (με βάση την αφήγηση του Μάρτιν Χάιντεγκερ για το «τέλος της φιλοσοφίας και το έργο της σκέψης») μετατράπηκαν σε πλήρη αποδόμηση τη δεκαετία του 1970. Η έννοια του Gilles Deleuze και του Felix Guattari για τη ριζωματική σκέψη (σε αντίθεση με την ιεραρχική, εξουσιοδοτημένη δενδρώδη σκέψη) σηματοδότησε μια κίνηση ενάντια στις ψυχαναλυτικές θεωρίες που βασίζονται στην Οιδιπόδεια αυθεντία και την πατρική επιμονή. Η ιδέα τους για τον νομαδισμό έδωσε έμφαση στη γνώση, την εμπειρία και τις σχέσεις που δεν ήταν οργανωμένες γύρω από μια κεντρική έννοια. Η αφήγηση του J. Kristeva για την επανάσταση στην ποιητική γλώσσα σηματοδότησε τη διάκριση μεταξύ του σημειωτικού και του συμβολικού. Όπου η συμβολική —επιστημονική, θεωρητική, φαλλική, πατρική— σκέψη είχε διαποτίσει τη φιλοσοφία και την επιστήμη, η Kristeva επικαλέστηκε τη σημειωτική ως την ποιητική, ρευστή, σαν υποδοχέα, μητρική σκέψη που έχει κρυφτεί στη σύγχρονη σκέψη. Ωστόσο, το μεταμοντέρνο δεν ήταν σχεδόν ο όρος που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για να περιγράψει αυτό το είδος φιλοσοφίας. Αντίστοιχα, η πιο περιορισμένη μελέτη της φαινομενολογίας και του υπαρξισμού στη φιλοσοφία έδωσε τη θέση της στις πιο πολλαπλές και ποικιλόμορφες θεωρίες που υπονοούνται στην ηπειρωτική φιλοσοφία: αποδόμηση, αρχαιολογία της γνώσης, σημασιολογική ανάλυση, σχιζανάλυση, φεμινιστική θεωρία κ.λπ. Ωστόσο, ενώ ο μεταστρουκτουραλισμός (σε σχέση με τους Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, Kristeva, et al.) χαιρετίστηκε ως ο διάδοχος του στρουκτουραλισμού (Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, Louis Althusser) και της υπαρξιακής φαινομενολογίας (Heidegger, Jean -Paul Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Simone de Beauvoir), ο μεταμοντερνισμός δεν ήταν ακόμα μια σχετική κατηγορία στη φιλοσοφία μέχρι και τη δεκαετία του 1980. Καθώς περνούσε ο καιρός, ο μεταμοντερνισμός και η μεταμοντέρνα σκέψη άρχισαν να υπερισχύουν του μεταστρουκτουραλισμού ως η κυρίαρχη θεωρητική διατύπωση. -/- . (shrink)

How does consciousness vary across the animal kingdom? Are some animals ‘more conscious’ than others? This article presents a multidimensional framework for understanding interspecies variation in states of consciousness. The framework distinguishes five key dimensions of variation: perceptual richness, evaluative richness, integration at a time, integration across time, and self-consciousness. For each dimension, existing experiments that bear on it are reviewed and future experiments are suggested. By assessing a given species against each dimension, we can construct a consciousness profile for (...) that species. On this framework, there is no single scale along which species can be ranked as more or less conscious. Rather, each species has its own distinctive consciousness profile. (shrink)

L’identité et la datation de Nicolas le Péripatéticien, l’auteur d’un sommaire de la philosophie d’Aristote, ont fait l’objet d’un article récent de Silvia Fazzo paru dans la Revue des Études Grecques. Contre la datation courante, fondée sur l’identification de Nicolas à l’historien de grand renom Nicolas Damascène , Fazzo a montré que Nicolas avait probablement vécu au cours de la période couvrant les IIIe au Ve siècles ap. J.-C., et plus problablement à l’époque de l’empereur Julien l’Apostat . Cette hypothèse (...) trouve un appui dans un nouveau fragment en traduction hébraïque découvert par Mauro Zonta, dans lequel Nicolas cherche à expliquer la Trinité de Dieu au moyen de la doctrine aristotélicienne des causes: Dieu est un, en tant que sa substance est une, mais Dieu est également trois, puisqu’il est à la fois causes motrice, formelle et finale du monde. Dans la mesure, évidemment réduite, où un fragment si court est susceptible de datation, l’époque de Julien paraît la plus probable. (shrink)

Mental health among students is one of the major concerns amidst the pandemic. Employing a correlational design, this study investigates the relationship between emotional intelligence and mental health among 152 senior high school students. Based on the statistical analysis, the r coefficient of 0.82 indicates a high positive correlation between the variables. The p-value of 0.00, which is less than 0.05, leads to the decision to reject the null hypothesis. Hence, a significant relationship exists between emotional intelligence and mental health (...) among senior high school. Implications were discussed in the study. (shrink)

This paper investigates the link between the consumer perception that a company is socially oriented and the consumer intention to buy products marketed by that company. We suggest that this link exists when at least two conditions prevail: (1) the products sold by that company comply with ethical and social requirements; (2) the company has an acknowledged commitment to protect consumer rights and interests. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a survey among the clients of retail chains offering Fair Trade (...) products. The results show that socially oriented companies can successfully leverage their reputation to market products with high symbolic values. (shrink)

dolce, the first top-level ontology to be axiomatized, has remained stable for twenty years and today is broadly used in a variety of domains. dolce is inspired by cognitive and linguistic considerations and aims to model a commonsense view of reality, like the one human beings exploit in everyday life in areas as diverse as socio-technical systems, manufacturing, financial transactions and cultural heritage. dolce clearly lists the ontological choices it is based upon, relies on philosophical principles, is richly formalized, and (...) is built according to well-established ontological methodologies, e.g. OntoClean. Because of these features, it has inspired most of the existing top-level ontologies and has been used to develop or improve standards and public domain resources. Being a foundational ontology, dolce is not directly concerned with domain knowledge. Its purpose is to provide the general categories and relations needed to give a coherent view of reality, to integrate domain knowledge, and to mediate across domains. In these 20 years dolce has shown that applied ontologies can be stable and that interoperability across reference and domain ontologies is a reality. This paper briefly introduces the ontology and shows how to use it on a few modeling cases. (shrink)

This volume offers very selected papers from the 2014 conference of the “International Association for Computing and Philosophy” (IACAP) - a conference tradition of 28 years. - - - Table of Contents - 0 Vincent C. Müller: - Editorial - 1) Philosophy of computing - 1 Çem Bozsahin: - What is a computational constraint? - 2 Joe Dewhurst: - Computing Mechanisms and Autopoietic Systems - 3 Vincenzo Fano, Pierluigi Graziani, Roberto Macrelli and Gino Tarozzi: - Are Gandy Machines really local? (...) - 4 Doukas Kapantais: - A refutation of the Church-Turing thesis according to some interpretation of what the thesis says - 5 Paul Schweizer: - In What Sense Does the Brain Compute? - 2) Philosophy of computer science & discovery - 6 Mark Addis, Peter Sozou, Peter C R Lane and Fernand Gobet: - Computational Scientific Discovery and Cognitive Science Theories - 7 Nicola Angius and Petros Stefaneas: - Discovering Empirical Theories of Modular Software Systems. An Algebraic Approach. - 8 Selmer Bringsjord, John Licato, Daniel Arista, Naveen Sundar Govindarajulu and Paul Bello: - Introducing the Doxastically Centered Approach to Formalizing Relevance Bonds in Conditionals - 9 Orly Stettiner: - From Silico to Vitro: - Computational Models of Complex Biological Systems Reveal Real-world Emergent Phenomena - 3) Philosophy of cognition & intelligence - 10 Douglas Campbell: - Why We Shouldn’t Reason Classically, and the Implications for Artificial Intelligence - 11 Stefano Franchi: - Cognition as Higher Order Regulation - 12 Marcello Guarini: - Eliminativisms, Languages of Thought, & the Philosophy of Computational Cognitive Modeling - 13 Marcin Miłkowski: - A Mechanistic Account of Computational Explanation in Cognitive Science and Computational Neuroscience - 14 Alex Tillas: - Internal supervision & clustering: - A new lesson from ‘old’ findings? - 4) Computing & society - 15 Vasileios Galanos: - Floridi/Flusser: - Parallel Lives in Hyper/Posthistory - 16 Paul Bello: - Machine Ethics and Modal Psychology - 17 Marty J. Wolf and Nir Fresco: - My Liver Is Broken, Can You Print Me a New One? - 18 Marty J. Wolf, Frances Grodzinsky and Keith W. Miller: - Robots, Ethics and Software – FOSS vs. Proprietary Licenses. (shrink)

Decisions are made under uncertainty when there are distinct outcomes of a given action, and one is uncertain to which the act will lead. Decisions are made under indeterminacy when there are distinct outcomes of a given action, and it is indeterminate to which the act will lead. This paper develops a theory of (synchronic and diachronic) decision-making under indeterminacy that portrays the rational response to such situations as inconstant. Rational agents have to capriciously and randomly choose how to resolve (...) the indeterminacy relevant to a given choice-situation, but such capricious choices once made constrain how they will choose in the future. The account is illustrated by the case of self-interested action in situations where it is indeterminate whether you yourself will survive to benefit or suffer the consequences. The conclusion emphasizes some distinctive anti-hedging predictions of the account. (shrink)

Reductive intellectualists hold that knowledge-how is a kind of knowledge-that. For this thesis to hold water, it is obviously important that knowledge-how and knowledge-that have the same epistemic properties. In particular, knowledge-how ought to be compatible with epistemic luck to the same extent as knowledge-that. It is argued, contra reductive intellectualism, that knowledge-how is compatible with a species of epistemic luck which is not compatible with knowledge-that, and thus it is claimed that knowledge-how and knowledge-that come apart.

According to reductive intellectualism, knowledge-how just is a kind of propositional knowledge (e.g., Stanley & Williamson 2001; Stanley 2011a, 2011b; Brogaard, 2008a, 2008b, 2009, 2011, 2009, 2011). This proposal has proved controversial because knowledge-how and propositional knowledge do not seem to share the same epistemic properties, particularly with regard to epistemic luck. Here we aim to move the argument forward by offering a positive account of knowledge-how. In particular, we propose a new kind of anti-intellectualism. Unlike neo-Rylean anti-intellectualist views, according (...) to which the possession of knowledge-how is just a matter of possessing certain abilities, we submit that knowledge-how is a particular kind of cognitive achievement attained just when cognitive ability is connected in the right way with successful performance. (shrink)

Trust is a topic of longstanding philosophical interest. It is indispensable to every kind of coordinated human activity, from sport to scientific research. Even more, trust is necessary for the successful dissemination of knowledge, and by extension, for nearly any form of practical deliberation and planning. Without trust, we could achieve few of our goals and would know very little. Despite trust’s fundamental importance in human life, there is substantial philosophical disagreement about what trust is, and further, how trusting is (...) normatively constrained and best theorized about in relation to other things we value. This entry is divided into three sections, which explore key (and sometimes interconnected) ethical and epistemological themes in the philosophy of trust: (1) The Nature of Trust; (2) The Normativity of Trust, and (3) The Value of Trust. (shrink)

I provide a theory of causation within the causal modeling framework. In contrast to most of its predecessors, this theory is model-invariant in the following sense: if the theory says that C caused (didn't cause) E in a causal model, M, then it will continue to say that C caused (didn't cause) E once we've removed an inessential variable from M. I suggest that, if this theory is true, then we should understand a cause as something which transmits deviant or (...) non-inertial behavior to its effect. (shrink)

Robust Virtue Epistemology maintains that knowledge is achieved just when an agent gets to the truth through, or because of, the manifestation of intellectual virtue or ability. A notorious objection to the view is that the satisfaction of the virtue condition will be insufficient to ensure the safety of the target belief; that is, RVE is no anti-luck epistemology. Some of the most promising recent attempts to get around this problem are considered and shown to ultimately fail. Finally, a new (...) proposal for defending RVE as a kind of anti-luck epistemology is defended. The view developed here turns importantly on the idea that knowledge depends on ability and luck in a way that is gradient, not rigid, and that we know just when our cognitive success depends on ability not rather, but more so, than luck. (shrink)

Intentional action is, in some sense, non-accidental, and one common way action theorists have attempted to explain this is with reference to control. The idea, in short, is that intentional action implicates control, and control precludes accidentality. But in virtue of what, exactly, would exercising control over an action suffice to make it non-accidental in whatever sense is required for the action to be intentional? One interesting and prima facie plausible idea that we wish to explore in this paper is (...) that control is non-accidental in virtue of requiring knowledge – either knowledge-that or knowledge-how (e.g., Beddor and Pavese 2021; cf., Setiya 2008; 2012 and Habgood-Coote 2018). We review in detail some key recent work defending such knowledge-centric theories of control, and we show that none of these accounts holds water. We conclude with some discussion about how control opposes the sort of luck intentional action excludes without doing so by requiring knowledge (that- or how). (shrink)

Recent thinking within philosophy of mind about the ways cognition can extend has yet to be integrated with philosophical theories of emotion, which give cognition a central role. We carve out new ground at the intersection of these areas and, in doing so, defend what we call the extended emotion thesis: the claim that some emotions can extend beyond skin and skull to parts of the external world.

The externalist says that your evidence could fail to tell you what evidence you do or not do have. In that case, it could be rational for you to be uncertain about what your evidence is. This is a kind of uncertainty which orthodox Bayesian epistemology has difficulty modeling. For, if externalism is correct, then the orthodox Bayesian learning norms of conditionalization and reflection are inconsistent with each other. I recommend that an externalist Bayesian reject conditionalization. In its stead, I (...) provide a new theory of rational learning for the externalist. I defend this theory by arguing that its advice will be followed by anyone whose learning dispositions maximize expected accuracy. I then explore some of this theory’s consequences for the rationality of epistemic akrasia, peer disagreement, undercutting defeat, and uncertain evidence. (shrink)

Empirical work on motivated reasoning suggests that our judgments are influenced to a surprising extent by our wants, desires and preferences (Kahan 2016; Lord, Ross, and Lepper 1979; Molden and Higgins 2012; Taber and Lodge 2006). How should we evaluate the epistemic status of beliefs formed through motivated reasoning? For example, are such beliefs epistemically justified? Are they candidates for knowledge? In liberal democracies, these questions are increasingly controversial as well as politically timely (Beebe et al. 2018; Lynch forthcoming, 2018; (...) Slothuus and de Vreese 2010). And yet, the epistemological significance of motivated reasoning has been almost entirely ignored by those working in mainstream epistemology. We aim to rectify this oversight. Using politically motivated reasoning as a case study, we show how motivated reasoning gives rise to three distinct kinds of skeptical challenges. We conclude by showing how the skeptical import of motivated reasoning has some important ramifications for how we should think about the demands of intellectual humility. (shrink)

Lewis (1973) gave a short argument against conditional excluded middle, based on his treatment of ‘might’ counterfactuals. Bennett (2003), with much of the recent literature, gives an alternative take on ‘might’ counterfactuals. But Bennett claims the might-argument against CEM still goes through. This turns on a specific claim I call Bennett’s Hypothesis. I argue that independently of issues to do with the proper analysis of might-counterfactuals, Bennett’s Hypothesis is inconsistent with CEM. But Bennett’s Hypothesis is independently objectionable, so we should (...) resolve this tension by dropping the Hypothesis, not by dropping CEM. (shrink)

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in thedevelopment of ontologically well-founded conceptual models for Information Systems in areas such as Service Management, Accounting Information Systems and Financial Reporting. Economic exchanges are central phenomena in these areas. For this reason, they occupy a prominent position in modelling frameworks such as the REA (Resource-EventAction) ISO Standard as well as the FIBO (Financial Industry BusinessOntology). In this paper, we begin a well-founded ontological analysisof economic exchanges inspired by a recent ontological (...) view on the nature of economic transactions. According to this view, what counts asan economic transaction is based on an agreement on the actions thatthe agents are committed to perform. The agreement is in turn based on convergent preferences about the course of action to bring about. This view enables a unified treatment of economic exchanges, regardless the object of the transaction, and complies with the view that all economictransactions are about services. In this paper, we start developing our analysis in the framework of the Unified Foundational Ontology (UFO). (shrink)

Our aim is to provide a topography of the relevant philosophical terrain with regard to the possible ways in which knowledge can be conceived of as extended. We begin by charting the different types of internalist and externalist proposals within epistemology, and we critically examine the different formulations of the epistemic internalism/externalism debate they lead to. Next, we turn to the internalism/externalism distinction within philosophy of mind and cognitive science. In light of the above dividing lines, we then examine first (...) the extent to which content externalism is compatible with epistemic externalism; second, whether active externalism entails epistemic externalism; and third whether there are varieties of epistemic externalism that are better suited to accommodate active externalism. Finally, we examine whether the combination of epistemic and cognitive externalism is necessary for epistemology and we comment on the potential ramifications of this move for social epistemology and philosophy of science. (shrink)

A widespread assumption in debates about trust and trustworthiness is that the evaluative norms of principal interest on the trustor’s side of a cooperative exchange regulate trusting attitudes and performances whereas those on the trustee’s side regulate dispositions to respond to trust. The aim here will be to highlight some unnoticed problems with this asymmetrical picture – and in particular, how it elides certain key evaluative norms on both the trustor’s and trustee’s side the satisfaction of which are critical to (...) successful cooperative exchanges – and to show that a symmetrical, ‘achievement-first’ approach to theorising about trust and trustworthiness (and their relation to each other) has important advantages by comparison. The view I develop is guided by a structural analogy with practical reasoning. Just as practical reasoning is working as it should only when there is realisation (knowledge and action) of states (belief and intention) with reverse directions of fits (mind-to-world and world-to-mind), likewise, cooperation between trustor and trustee is functioning as it should only when there is an analogous kind of realisation on both sides of the cooperative exchange – viz., when the trustor ‘matches’ her achievement in trusting (an achievement in fitting reliance to reciprocity) with the trustee’s achievement in responding to trust (an achievement in fitting reciprocity to reliance). An upshot of viewing cooperation between trustor and trustee as exhibiting achievement-theoretic structure is that we will be better positioned to subsume trustworthiness (and its cognates on the trustee’s side), like trust, under a wider suite of evaluative norms that regulate attempts, dispositions, and achievements symmetrically on both sides of a cooperative exchange, with ‘matching achievements’ as the gold standard. (shrink)

This paper is about two topics: metaepistemological absolutism and the epistemic principles governing perceptual warrant. Our aim is to highlight—by taking the debate between dogmatists and conservativists about perceptual warrant as a case study—a surprising and hitherto unnoticed problem with metaepistemological absolutism, at least as it has been influentially defended by Paul Boghossian as the principal metaepistemological contrast point to relativism. What we find is that the metaepistemological commitments at play on both sides of this dogmatism/conservativism debate do not line (...) up with epistemic relativism nor do they line up with absolutism, at least as Boghossian articulates this position. What this case study reveals is the need in metaepistemological option space for the recognition of a weaker and less tendentious form of absolutism, what we call “environment relativism”. On this view, epistemic principles are knowable, objective, and they can serve as the basis of particular epistemic evaluations, but their validity is relative to the wider global environment in which they are applied. (shrink)

While openmindedness is often cited as a paradigmatic example of an intellectual virtue, the connection between openmindedness and truth is tenuous. Several strategies for reconciling this tension are considered, and each is shown to fail; it is thus claimed that openmindedness, when intellectually virtuous, bears no interesting essential connection to truth. In the final section, the implication of this result is assessed in the wider context of debates about epistemic value.

RELAÇÃO E EFEITOS BIOQUÍMICO-NUTRICIONAIS SOBRE O CORPO LÚTEO PERSISTENTE EM VACAS E. I. C. da Silva Departamento de Agropecuária – IFPE Campus Belo Jardim Departamento de Zootecnia – UFRPE sede CORPO LÚTEO PERSISTENTE EM BOVINOS INTRODUÇÃO Essa alteração funcional da estrutura ovárica está relacionada com uma lise incompleta do corpo lúteo, o que leva à presença de níveis subnormais de progesterona bloqueando a ciclicidade ovárica ao retardar a retroalimentação para a ação dos estrogênios durante o proestro e o estro. Os (...) principais fatores associados à manifestação da permanência do corpo lúteo são as lesões do endométrio que bloqueiam a produção de prostaglandinas e as deficiências nutricionais (FRAZER, 2005; GORDON, 1996), sob essa última é importante citar: 8.1 Minerais (Manganês Mn) A deficiência de manganês em vacas alimentadas com rações que contenham menos de 22 mg de Mn por Kg-¹ de MS parece causar anestro, cios silenciosos, atrasos na ovulação, baixos níveis de gestações à primeira cobrição e nascimento de bezerros deformados. A infertilidade ocorre principalmente em animais que consomem pastagens que crescem em solos com deficiência de manganês ou que são fertilizados com grandes quantidades de calcita, ou que recebem suplementos que contêm quantidades excessivas de cálcio. Os bovinos possuem exigências distintas de Mn conforme sua categoria e aptidão, por exemplo, o gado de corte requerem 40 mg/kg de Mn presente na MS, porém esse número pode variar entre 20-50 mg/kg de MS; o gado de leite requer as mesmas 40 gramas por quilo de matéria seca, mas o intervalo segundo institutos de pesquisa gira em torno de 12-14 mg/kg de MS, o que é controverso. O nível máximo permitido de Mn presente na MS não deve ultrapassar os 1000 ppm por kg, para que não altere os mecanismos fisiológicos do sistema digestivo nem acarrete possíveis transtornos reprodutivos ou não. As fontes de suplementação do mineral para os animais são diversas, o pasto com as gramíneas, forrageiras e leguminosas suprem bem as exigências, porém se for o caso pode-se inserir o Mn por meio da ração ou via injetável através do sulfato de manganês. Esse manejo é para garantir a prevenção não só do corpo lúteo persistente, mas sim de tantas outras alterações na fertilidade dos animais. Sendo um cofator de enzimas como as fosfoglicomutase, piruvato carboxilase e fosfoenolpiruvato carboxil quinase, o manganês tem um papel fundamental na gliconeogênese. A diminuição dos níveis de manganês no útero acarreta numa redução da resposta tecidular à ação de estrogênios, o que causaria a presença de cios irregulares e silenciosos, bem como uma menor síntese de prostaglandina levando, como efeito, a uma menor eficiência na luteólise. A prevenção é o melhor remédio, e se for o caso de combater o transtorno os métodos mais utilizados são a utilização paulatinamente do mineral por meio da ração ou do pasto para obter os resultados gradativamente. Deve-se estar atento as quantidades e a qualidade, para que em vez da deficiência não acometa um novo transtorno mediante a supermineralização do animal. 8.2 Nitratos, nitritos e ferro (Fe) Outra anormalidade nutricional que afeta os processos luteolíticos gerando o corpo lúteo persistente é a alta concentração de nitratos que, mediante processos de redução ruminal, se convertem em nitritos. Os nitratos acumulam-se em forragens, fenos fertilizados com nitrogênio ou sob estresse térmico (HENDRIX, 2003). Os efeitos do NO3 na fermentação dos carboidratos pela flora ruminal estimulam a produção de acetato em detrimento dos ácidos graxos glicogênicos. Os nitritos afetam a troca gasosa por desacoplamento ferroso na hemoglobina, impedindo uma oxigenação correta dos tecidos. Não havendo troca gasosa entre oxigênio e o CO2, os tecidos retêm a forma carbonada freando a cadeia de elétrons e reduzindo seu potencial energético, dessa maneira obstrui-se a irrigação nas células da granulosa, e a síntese de algumas substâncias como as prostaglandinas, procedendo-se, como efeito, o corpo lúteo retido. Estudos realizados demonstraram que mesmo que a ingestão de nitratos seja em baixas doses, leva a problemas reprodutivos quando a metahemoglobinemia alcança os 30% (ou seja, 30% do Fe+2 da hemoglobina foi convertido a Fe+3). Os nitratos e os nitritos são encontrados na água dos animais, logo o criador deve fazer uma análise laboratorial para estudar a viabilidade de consumo da mesma. Os valores não poderão ser maiores que 220 ppm para NO3 e maiores que 40-100 de N- NO3. Com relação ao Fe o ideal é a ingestão de 50 mg/kg de MS para todas as idades, tendo um intervalo sugerido entre 50-100 mg/kg de MS para gado de corte e de 12,3-18 em gado leiteiro. Para suplementar esses animais com uma boa e adequada ingestão de Fe pelos animais os grãos de cereais possuem 30-60 mg de Fe/kg de MS; as oleaginosas possuem entre 100-200 mg de Fe/kg de MS; as farinhas de produtos de origem animal são as mais expressivas em teor de Fe tendo entre 400-3000 mg do mineral por kg de MS, mas vale salientar que níveis acima de 1000 ppm ou 1000 mg/kg o Fe já torna-se tóxico para o animal e, por fim, as forrageiras possuem entre 70-500 mg de Fe/kg de MS. Logo, caso haja deficiência do mineral no plantel o criador poderá optar pela inserção do mesmo na ração, água ou via suplementação mineral injetável (SMI). Se todos os manejos forem praticados os transtornos tanto do corpo lúteo persistente quanto de demais alterações ou patogenias, como a anemia ferropriva, expressiva em suínos e em bovinos menos comum, podem ser prevenidas e/ou combatidas. 8.3 Energia Outra causa corrente e importante de alterações na reprodução por causas nutricionais na vaca, é o fracasso dos sistemas digestivo e hepático para fornecer energia suficiente para a manutenção, exercício, crescimento, gestação e lactação. Os problemas de infertilidade podem ter origem na baixa capacidade gliconeogênica. Vários estudos sugerem que, nos ruminantes, o principal fator que regula a insulinogênese é a glicemia e que o propionato tem um baixo poder insulinogênico. Por conseguinte, baixos níveis de glicemia conduzem a baixos níveis de insulina plasmática provocando, indiretamente, as alterações na sequência gonadotrófica e induzindo lise luteal incompleta. Pouco se sabe sobre as vias específicas em que a informação sobre o estado nutricional é convertida em sinais neuroendócrinos que afetam a secreção de GnRH. Os mecanismos propostos incluem os possíveis papéis das hormonas envolvidas no metabolismo intermediário, particularmente a insulina. Recentemente, com a descoberta da leptina, abriu-se um novo campo de estudo para as relações entre o estado nutricional e a reprodução na vaca leiteira. A leptina ocorre no tecido adiposo e tem efeitos sobre o consumo de energia, a deposição de reservas, a liberação de LH e a resposta a FSH e LH em células hipofisárias e em células granulosas. A ação gonadotrófica de LH e particularmente de FSH, é conhecida por ser modulada por outros hormônios e fatores de crescimento. Estes incluem a insulina, GH e IGF-I, que desempenham um papel importante no metabolismo intermediário de energia e são, nutricionalmente, regulados por si mesmos. Estudos apontam que tanto a glicose como os esqueletos carbonados de aminoácidos ou insulina e IGF-I podem modular a taxa de ovulação independentemente da circulação de concentrações de FSH devido a efeitos diretos no ovário sobre o desenvolvimento folicular. Se a disponibilidade de fósforo para o metabolismo celular for reduzida, é provável que haja um desequilíbrio com o potássio, o que levaria a uma diminuição do fluxo de energia. O mais evidente de todos é uma intervenção na reação ATP—ADP + ~P. As características próprias dos recursos alimentares somadas à sua utilização inadequada têm originado nas vacas de explorações leiteiras de sistemas intensivos, uma série de desequilíbrios nutricionais generalizados, caracterizados por deficiência de energia, excesso de proteína crua e nitratos (NO3-), deficiências de fibra, de Ca, de Mg e algumas vezes excessos de P e K (GALVIS, et al. 2001). Essa problemática tem origem nas práticas irracionais de gestão da propriedade e principalmente dos animais no que tange a alimentação dos mesmos. Com relação ao pasto, a problemática origina-se sobre a excessiva fertilização e períodos curtos de rotação dos pastos, que dão lugar a pastagens com baixa quantidade de matéria seca, o que pode condicionar o consumo de forragens de qualidade questionável e favorecer o déficit energético. Esse déficit de energia no início da lactância diminui as concentrações de hormônio luteinizante (LH), o que leva a concluir que a alteração ovárica seria determinada por uma alteração na liberação pulsátil de LH, provavelmente ocasionada por uma liberação anormal e reduzida de GnRH, isso levaria a cios silenciosos e corpos lúteos persistentes. Superficialmente, vale sempre lembrar que a prevenção é a melhor opção numa criação de bovinos, logo, os macro ou micro minerais devem estar inseridos na dieta animal em quantidades estabelecidas para não manifestar uma deficiência ou supermineralização. O Ca deve ser presente entre 0,17-1,53% em kg/MS e numa concentração máxima de 2% kg/MS para não ser tóxico. O P deve ser fornecido entre 0,17-0,59% em kg/MS e menor que 1000 mg/kg de MS nível mínimo para toxidade. O K entre 0,6-1,0 mg por kg/MS, uma vaca de 600 kg deve ingerir um total de 230 mg/dia de K, o nível de toxidade do K é > 3% em kg/MS. O Mg entre 0,05-0,35 mg/dia, em um nível tóxico ≥ 1% em kg/MS. Esses minerais, como falado anteriormente e sempre frisado para o agricultor ter todo alicerce possível, se limita aos grãos de cereais, leguminosas, oleaginosas, farinhas de origem animal e vegetal, forrageiras e outras fontes alternativas. Para aclarar o supracitado texto, observe a tabela que contém o mineral, a quantidade ideal de fornecimento baseado ao requerimento animal, o nível de toxidade o alimento que mais contém determinado mineral e as vias possíveis de suplementação em caso de deficiência. Tabela 1: Exigências minerais dos bovinos e quantidades ideais de fornecimento diário Mineral Quant. Exigida pelo animal* Nível de toxidade Alimento mais adequado Via de suplementação Manganês (Mn) 40 mg/kg de MS > 1000 ppm + em forragens Água/Pasto/Ração/SMI Ferro (Fe) 50 mg/kg de MS > 1000 ppm + em farinhas de origem animal > 400 mg/kg Água/Pasto/Ração/SMI Cálcio (Ca) 0,17-1,53% por kg/MS > 2% kg/MS + em forrageiras > 0,6% kg/MS Água/Pasto/Ração/SMI Fósforo (P) 0,17-0,59% por kg de MS > 1% kg/MS + em farinhas de origem animal > 0,6% Pasto/Ração/SMI Potássio (K) 0,6-1,0 mg/kg de MS Uma vaca com 600kg exige 230g/dia > 3% kg/MS + em forrageiras > 0,33% Pasto/Ração/SMI Magnésio (Mg) 0,05-0,35 mg/dia > 1% kg/MS ± grãos ∆ forrageiras e > leguminosas Água/Pasto/Ração/SMI * Referida a todas as idades. Dados obtidos pela pesquisa através de BERCHIELLI et al. 2006; TEIXEIRA, 1992 e 1997. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS BERCHIELLI, Telma Teresinha; PIRES, Alexandre Vaz; OLIVEIRA, SG de. Nutrição de ruminantes. Jaboticabal: funep, 2006. BINDARI, Yugal Raj et al. Effects of nutrition on reproduction-A review. Adv. Appl. Sci. Res, v. 4, n. 1, p. 421-429, 2013. BOLAND, M. P. Efectos nutricionales en la reproducción del ganado. XXXI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2003. DEHNING, R. Interrelaciones entre nutrición y fertilidad. In: Curso Manejo de la Fertilidad Bovina18-23 May 1987Medellín (Colombia). CICADEP, Bogotá (Colombia) Universidad de La Salle, Medellín (Colombia) Instituto Colombiano Agropecurio, Bogotá (Colombia) Sociedad Alemana de Cooperación Técnica-GTZ (Alemania), 1987. DE LUCA, Leonardo J. Nutrición y fertilidad en el ganado lechero. XXXVI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2008. FRAZER, Grant S. Bovine theriogenology. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 21, n. 2, p. xiii-xiv, 2005. GALVIS, Rubén D.; CORREA, Héctor J.; RAMÍREZ, Nicolás. Interacciones entre el balance nutricional, los indicadores del metabolismo energético y proteico y las concentraciones plasmáticas de Insulina, e IGF-1 en vacas en lactancia temprana. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, v. 16, n. 3, p. 237-248, 2003. GORDON, Ian. Controlled reproduction in farm animals series. Nova Iorque: CAB International, 1996. HENDRIX, F. W. Manejo de pasturas y problemas de pastoreo. Animal agriculture. WSU Extension. Washington State University. EUA, 2003. Disponível em:. Acesso em: Abril de 2020. MAAS, John. Relationship between nutrition and reproduction in beef cattle. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice, v. 3, n. 3, p. 633-646, 1987. PASA, Camila. Relação reprodução animal e os minerais. Biodiversidade, v. 9, n. 1, 2011. TEIXEIRA, J. C.; TEIXEIRA, LFAC. Alimentação de bovinos leiteiros. FAEPE, Lavras, 1997. TEIXEIRA, J. C. Nutrição de ruminantes. Lavras: FAEPE, 1992. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Belo Jardim, 11 de abril de 2020. (shrink)

Reductive intellectualists (e.g., Stanley & Williamson 2001; Stanley 2011a; 2011b; Brogaard 2008; 2009; 2011) hold that knowledge-how is a kind of knowledge-that. If this thesis is correct, then we should expect the defeasibility conditions for knowledge-how and knowledge-that to be uniform—viz., that the mechanisms of epistemic defeat which undermine propositional knowledge will be equally capable of imperilling knowledge-how. The goal of this paper is twofold: first, against intellectualism, we will show that knowledge-how is in fact resilient to being undermined by (...) the very kinds of traditional (propositional) epistemic defeaters which clearly defeat the items of propositional knowledge which intellectualists identify with knowledge-how. Second, we aim to fill an important lacuna in the contemporary debate, which is to develop an alternative way in which epistemic defeat for knowledge-how could be modelled within an anti-intellectualist framework. (shrink)

RELAÇÃO E EFEITOS BIOQUÍMICO-NUTRICIONAIS SOBRE A MORTALIDADE EMBRIONÁRIA EM VACAS -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Departamento de Agropecuária – IFPE Campus Belo Jardim [email protected] ou [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)98143-8399 -/- •__5. Mortalidade EMBRIONÁRIA -/- A mortalidade embrionária (ME) é uma desordem reprodutiva responsável por cerca de 15% das falhas da gestação. Em si, a ME pode ser dividida em dois grandes grupos, a ME precoce, ou seja, aquela que ocorre nos primeiros dias da gestação, por problemas específicos de reconhecimento materno-fetal, (...) que não geram alteração significativa do ciclo estral, já que, não se afeta o corpo lúteo (BONDURANT, 2004). A segunda forma da ME, denominada ME tardia, altera o ciclo estral e se apresenta por rejeição da implantação em suas primeiras fases, usualmente se apresenta entre 25 e 40 dias pós-serviço. De acordo com GEARY (2005) existem múltiplas causas associadas à ME, entre essas causas listam-se os problemas de rejeição imunológica, a ausência de fatores de reconhecimento materno-fetal, problemas infecciosos, estresse e deficiências nutricionais, sobre essa última pode-se citar: 5.1 Deficiência de betacarotenos Os betacarotenos são precursores da vitamina A (provitamina A). São pigmentos vegetais de cor amarela ou laranja que, uma vez ingeridos, se transformam no fígado e no intestino delgado em vitamina A. São antioxidantes que ajudam o organismo a eliminar os radicais livres tóxicos que causam a oxidação dos tecidos (reação química de peroxidação que produz lesão nos tecidos já que os peróxidos são compostos tóxicos e cancerígenos) em células, proteínas e no material genético como DNA. Os radicais livres são normalmente formados como subprodutos do metabolismo oxidativo energético do organismo. Os betacarotenos atuam atrapalhando estes radicais livres e moléculas de oxigênio livre, e daí parte seu efeito protetor o qual centra-se na defesa da parede epitelial, pois sendo precursores da vitamina A, induzindo a sua síntese protegem a parede epitelial do enfraquecimento das suas membranas, evitando assim a entrada fácil de microrganismos patogênicos que possam, especificamente no caso de uma fêmea gestante, produzir infecções que ataquem o embrião provocando a sua morte, uma vez que aumenta-se a resistência imunológica. Além disso, intervêm também na diferenciação das células estaminais do embrião, evitando que ocorram malformações que possam originar mortalidade embrionária, e também evitando a assimetria do organismo que se está formando. A vitamina A, ajuda na conservação dos epitélios para um funcionamento normal. Uma deficiência desta, produz uma alteração dos epitélios que revestem o aparelho genital, podendo ocasionar diminuição da barreira protetora que formam as membranas, os microrganismos patogênicos podem entrar facilmente, desencadeando a morte do embrião. A vitamina A, atua no momento em que as células tronco do embrião entram em uma área deste, chamada "Nódulo de Hensen", começam a formar três camadas embrionárias de células que dão passagem ao sistema nervoso, digestivo, circulatório e outros sistemas do corpo. Células específicas localizadas nesta zona do embrião utilizam seus cílios (que segregam vitamina A) para criar correntes no fluido que as rodeia e dirigir as células estaminais para o seu destino final. Estas células-tronco, antes de chegar ao nódulo do embrião "não estão orientadas espacialmente e tampouco estão diferenciadas em tecidos concretos" embora depois de cruzar esta porta, recebem ordens genéticas necessárias para se colocarem no interior do organismo em desenvolvimento e conhecerem qual vai ser a sua diferenciação específica. Então a ação desta vitamina faz com que algumas destas células ignorem as instruções de diferenciação esquerda e direita, prosseguindo simetricamente. Segundo isto, em uma deficiência de vitamina A, o aspecto exterior do corpo também acabaria por ser assimétrico perdendo potencial de aceitação na implantação, levando os mecanismos naturais de vigilância de estabilidade celular a sua destruição e, portanto, gerando a ME (TORRES et al., 2002). Os níveis de vitamina A, bem como de outras vitaminas, na alimentação de bovinos de corte ou leite já foram discutidos. Cada animal tem sua particularidade de ingestão diária de vitaminas conforme a idade, sexo, categoria, etc. e que esses requerimentos são, muitas vezes, variáveis conforme a disponibilidade, isto é, pode-se fazer a injeção direta de fármacos em líquido ricos em vitaminas no animal, ou pode-se optar pelo fornecimento nos alimentos concentrados (ração) ou pelos volumosos (gramíneas, forrageiras e leguminosas). Deve-se estar atento para que os níveis não ultrapassem o necessário para que nenhum elemento sobressaia outro e venha a ocasionar afecções além de reprodutivas. 5.2 Relação com a Proteína O excesso de proteína crua na dieta tem sido associada com mortalidade embrionária. Há uma hipótese que sugere que a concentração de LH, e portanto de progesterona, poderiam ser afetadas por elevados níveis de proteína na ração, talvez não de forma direta, porém pela deficiência de energia que os excessos proteicos geram. Existe uma relação estreita entre o excesso de proteína crua e a concentração de progesterona, esta relação é através de uma "exacerbação" do balanço energético negativo em vacas no início da lactação, pela despesa de precursores da glicose e o consumo energético extra que supõe transformar o amônio em ureia (este fato só se relaciona com a proteína degradável no rúmen). Isso ocasionaria um aumento negativo do balanço energético negativo e queda de glicemia, o que seria captado pela hipófise como um sinal negativo para a liberação de LH. Um excesso de proteína tal que reduza os níveis de progesterona e de bTP-1 (proteína trofoblástica), hoje identificada como o Interferão tau (IFN-t), pertencente a uma subclasse dos interferões Ômega, e definidos como fatores de reconhecimento materno-fetal em bovinos, pode causar mortalidade embrionária por volta do 17° dia após a inseminação devido à perda do efeito de ambos os compostos contra a resposta imunitária da mãe (MOREIRA & MORALES, 2001). Os níveis excessivos de proteína na dieta que conduzem a níveis elevados de ureia no sangue reduzem o pH uterino, estimulando assim a produção da prostaglandina F2 alfa (PGF2-α) que, por sua vez, estimula a contratilidade uterina e reduz a viabilidade de implantação do embrião (GALVIS, 2003). Foi também observado que concentrações elevadas de ureia no sangue reduzem a formação de progesterona, alterando a atividade reprodutiva em ambos os casos. A progesterona é uma hormona lipídica que é produzida pelo corpo lúteo sob o estímulo do (IGF-I) e, como foi indicado anteriormente, este fator de crescimento foi igualmente reduzido, uma vez que o potencial genético para a produção de leite aumentou de tal maneira que a redução da concentração de IGF- I pode ser uma das causas da diminuição da concentração da progesterona, por exemplo. Agora, embora considere-se que a hormona do crescimento (HC) regula a síntese de IGF-I no fígado, esta hormona não é eficaz a menos que exista um nível limiar de insulina e esta última também é reduzida em vacas de alta produção no início da lactação (GALVIS, 2003) e em condições de balanço energético negativo, tal como ocorre no pós-parto precoce. As proteínas são essenciais na vida dos animais e do ser humano. Os animais possuem sua particularidade conforme a exigência requerida de proteína e já foi discutido que os melhores métodos para fornecimento racional dessa macromolécula é por meio dos alimentos concentrados ricos em soja que é considerado um alimento proteico por possuir um teor de 60% desta, ou por meio de alimentos volumosos no caso dos capins, silagens, etc. Como já discutido em outros trabalhos, existem tipos diferentes de proteínas com funções também distintas, citamos a proteína bruta (PB) e a proteína metabolizável (PM), ao qual os animais requerem em porcentagens que devem estar presentes no alimento que o criador fornece e que o animal ingere. -/- Apoio -/- Realização -/- •_ _referências bibliográficas -/- BOLAND, M. P. Efectos nutricionales en la reproducción del ganado. XXXI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2003. BONDURANT, R. H. Controlling what we can control: Limiting embryonic fetal losses. In: Proc. of the American Assn. of Bovine Practitioners Conf. 2004. Vol. 37. p. 2004-2023. CORREA, H. J. El metabolismo del nitrógeno y su relación con las alteraciones reproductivas en vacas de alta producción. II Curso de Actualización en Reproducción Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicada, Politécnico Colombiano Jaime Isaza Cadavid, Medellín, v. 3, 2002. DEHNING, R. Interrelaciones entre nutrición y fertilidad. In: Curso Manejo de la Fertilidad Bovina18-23 May 1987Medellín (Colombia). CICADEP, Bogotá (Colombia) Universidad de La Salle, Medellín (Colombia) Instituto Colombiano Agropecurio, Bogotá (Colombia) Sociedad Alemana de Cooperación Técnica-GTZ (Alemania), 1987. DE LUCA, Leonardo J. Nutrición y fertilidad en el ganado lechero. XXXVI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2008. FRAZER, Grant S. Bovine theriogenology. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 21, n. 2, p. xiii-xiv, 2005. GALVIS, Rubén D.; CORREA, Héctor J.; RAMÍREZ, Nicolás. Interacciones entre el balance nutricional, los indicadores del metabolismo energético y proteico y las concentraciones plasmáticas de Insulina, e IGF-1 en vacas en lactancia temprana. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Pecuarias, v. 16, n. 3, p. 237-248, 2003. GEARY, Tom. Management strategies to reduce embryonic loss. Range Beef Cow Symposium. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2005. GORDON, Ian. Controlled reproduction in farm animals series. Nova Iorque: CAB International, 1996. MOREIRA, Olga Lidia; MORALES, C. Efecto del interferón recombinante bovino omega i sobre el intervalo interestral, tiempo de vida del cuerpo luteo y la temperatura corporal en el bovino. Revista de Salud Animal, v. 23, n. 1, p. 56-62, 2001. TORRES, M. et al. Aspectos Farmacológicos relevantes de las Vitaminas Antioxidantes (E, A y C). Archivos Venezolanos de Farmacología y Terapéutica, v. 21, n. 1, p. 22-27, 2002. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Belo Jardim, 29 de março de 2020. (shrink)

According to robust virtue epistemology , knowledge is type-identical with a particular species of cognitive achievement. The identification itself is subject to some criticism on the grounds that it fails to account for the anti-luck features of knowledge. Although critics have largely focused on environmental luck, the fundamental philosophical problem facing RVE is that it is not clear why it should be a distinctive feature of cognitive abilities that they ordinarily produce beliefs in a way that is safe. We propose (...) a novel way to resolve this problem. Key to our proposal will be an appreciation of different representational states beholden to truth. We suggest these different representational states are distinguished by how, in the proper governance of these states, the twin goods of attaining truth and avoiding error are weighted. Moreover, we explain how varieties of representational states line up with varieties of cognitive achievement such that knowledge, cum cognitive achievement, must be safe because of the kind of attempt at success that belief is—namely, an attempt that places the premium it does on avoiding error. (shrink)

According to orthodox causal decision theory, performing an action can give you information about factors outside of your control, but you should not take this information into account when deciding what to do. Causal decision theorists caution against an irrational policy of 'managing the news'. But, by providing information about factors outside of your control, performing an act can give you two, importantly different, kinds of good news. It can tell you that the world in which you find yourself is (...) good in ways you can't control, and it can also tell you that the act itself is in a position to make the world better. While the first kind of news does not speak in favor of performing an act, I believe that the second kind of news does. I present a revision of causal decision theory which advises you to manage the news about the good you stand to promote, while ignoring news about the good the world has provided for you. (shrink)